Crowdsourcing and ICT in disaster management

Crowdsourcing and ICT in disaster management

Crowdsourcing: Crowd-sourcing is a method of information collection that utilizes data collected from volunteers. This has been extensively used in disaster management by providing critical information to fill the gaps and  thereby complements the disaster response efforts. It is being increasingly used to produce information before a disaster takes place and thus aiding in disaster preparedness.

ICT: Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) are used in anticipating, communicating and organizing actions before, during and after disaster events.

'Sahana' and 'Ushahidi' are two software programs that focus on crisis management and are integrated with GIS.

The lifecycle of a crowdsourced emergency report consists of:
-the local observer
-a web-user with some knowledge of linked open-data and
-the information manager working for a relief organisation


Crowdsourcing linked open data is the next step towards a full exploitation of crowdsourced information in disaster management.

Instruments used to predict occurrence of natural disasters

Instruments used to predict occurrence of natural disasters

Several systems are used to monitor and predict natural hazards. The following is the list of instruments used to predict the occurrence of various natural disasters:

1. Continuous television and radio broadcasts of severe weather by real-time or near real-time data from meteorological stations and satellite images for prediction of cyclones or floods
2. Seismic instruments are used to measure low-frequency ground motion caused by earthquakes. They detect the seismic waves created by subsurface ruptures and convert ground motions into electronic signals which are suitable for transmission. Instruments that are used to predict earthquakes include the following:
   1. Creepmeters, to warn of movement of the earth's soil;
   2. Global positioning systems, to warn of movement of the earth's crust;
   3. Laser light, to warn of disrupted light beam transmission from one side of a fault line to another;
   4. Magnetometer, to warn of magnetic field changes;
   5. Strainmeters, through the coordinated use of the seismometer and the seismograph, to warn of underground vibrations or shock waves.
3. A drought can be predicted by the consistent lack of rainfall
4. A Tsunami can be predictted using a 'tsunameter'
   

Landslides and use of remote sensing to predict their occurrence

Predicting occurrence of landslides using remote sensing techniques:

Landslides are one of the most damaging natural hazards in mountainous terrain.
Rocks are disintegrated and decomposed by the process of weathering. Weathered material soaked with rain water slides down due to gravity. This sudden downward slip movement of rock material is called landslide.

Landslides can occur due to:
-condition of soil
-moisture and
-angle of slope

Occurrence of landslides is particularly common in geodynamic sensitive belts.

The main factors triggering landslides are:
-heavy and prolonged rainfall
-cutting and deep excavation on slope for construction of buildings, roads, canals or mining activity without proper disposal of debries and
-earthquake shocks and tremors

Widespread deforestation for development activities and increasing population pressure has forced people to conduct agriculture on steeper slopes thereby aggravating occurrence of landslides in terrain of varying relief.

Prediction of the occurrence of a landslide in an area is essential to minimize the intensity of a landslide hazard.

Remote sensing images provide useful land use information that can be used in conjunction with GIS software along with other spatial factors to predict the occurrence of a landslide.

Remote sensing is mainly used to map the distribution of existing landslide location and factors that affect the occurrence of a landslide.

Satellite images can be used to recognise and interpret detailed geomorphic characteristics of large and small landslides and determine the likelihood of a landslide.

Current high resolution stereo SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) and optical images produce multiscale landslide inventory maps to improve mitigation.

Remote sensing techniques have been widely used to study characteristics of land surface due to advantage of repetitive data acquisition of a large area in a short time.

Spatial analysis using data derived from remote sensing techniques and other thematic map data helps in prediction and estimation of landslide hazard areas.

Satellite data can be used to derive land surface temperature and land use information.

Elevation and terrain slope can be determined from Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generated from aerial photographs using stereo correlation techniques.

Underground water level information can be estimated from the combination of the above data. From these data, simple algorithms are used to classify area into different risk zones.

All the risk maps are combined using spatial analysis and a final risk map is produced taking into account all the factors.

Thus, remote sensing techniques when integrated with GIS are an extremely useful tool to study potential landslide areas.

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING & GIS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT - 1

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING & GIS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

1. Space technologies and disaster mitigation communities work together to develop effective and accurate methods for prevention, preparedness and relief measures.
2. Disaster prevention is a long-term phenomena that can be best studied with the help of satellite monitoring of various relevant factors such as change in land use.
3. Disaster preparedness focusses on warnings and forecasts of impending disasters and entails processes that are dynamic and result in "rapid onset" disasters.
4. Disaster relief occurs after (and sometimes during) the emergency.
5. Satellite monitoring involves assessment of damage incurred during the disaster.
6. Satellite technology helps in identifying escape routes and location for storage of temporary housing.
7. Remote sensing and GIS are among the many tools available to disaster management professionals.
8. None of the existing satellites and their sensors have been designed solely for observing natural hazards. The spectral bands in VIS (VISible), NIR (Near Infra Red ), IR (Infra Red), SWIR (Short Wave Infra Red), TIR (Thermal Infra Red) and SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) provide adequate spectral coverage. This data can be enhanced using a computer and used for effectively managing disasters.
9. Repetitive or multi-temporal coverage is justified since the data can be used to study dynamic phenomenon whose changes can be identified over time. For example:
1. Natural hazard events
2. Changing land use patterns
3. Hydrologic and geologic characteristics of a region
10.  Experts in disaster management:
1. Monitor the situation
2. Accurately simulate complex natural phenomena and devise better prediction models
3. Suggest appropriate contingency plans and
4. Prepare spatial databases
11. The following are the characteristics of remotely sensed images:
1. Spatial continuity
2. Uniform accuracy and precision
3. Multi-temporal coverage
4. Complete coverage regardless of site location
12. Use of remotely sensed data:
1. Quickly assess severity and impact of damage due to flooding, earthquakes, oil spills and other disasters
2. Planning efficient escape routes
3. Charting quickest routes for ambulances to reach victims
4. Locating places for shelter for victims or refugees
5. Calculating population density in disaster prone areas
6. Rapidly identifying hardest-hit disaster areas in order to provide early warning of potential disasters.
7. Pre-disaster assessments to facilitate planning for timely evacuation and recovery operations during a crisis
8. Monitoring reconstruction or rehabilitation after a major disaster
9.  Developing,  maintaining or updating accurate base maps.

Earthquakes: Remote sensing techniques can add to information available through seismic techniques.

1. Faults associated with earthquakes can be identified on good resolution satellite imagery.
2. Land-use and geological maps give vital pointers towards  potential earthquake zones.
3. Satellite sensors that are active in VIS (VISible) and NIR (Near Infra Red) spectral bands are useful for the above mentioned purpose.
4. IRS, NOAA, SPOT, LANDSAT and IKONOS collect required data. However, LANDSAT imageries are popular as they have a huge historical archive data and are cost effective.
5. Earthquakes can trigger landslides of unconsolidated sediments at high elevations.

According to the seismic classification of India, Zone V that covers the following locations is most prone to earthquakes:

1. North-East India
2. Jammu & Kashmir
3. Himachal Pradesh
4. Uttarakhand (Due to movement of Indian and Asian plate) and
5. Gujarat 

Tsunami

1. Tsunamis  are water waves or seismic sea waves caused by large-scale sudden movement of sea floor. This could be triggered by earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides or man-made explosions.
2. Tsunamis can cause serious damage to thousands of kilometers from causative faults.
3. They are less than 1m surface height in mid ocean where they originate. They travel at speeds touching 900 kmph.
4. As they approach land, the speed decreases and energy is transformed into wave height of almost 25 - 30m
5. Time between successive waves is almost 20 to 40 minutes.
6. Near the coastline, sea receedes lower than the lowest tide and then rises as a giant wave.
7. Satellite or aerial photography when combined with a good GIS database of an area, provides critical information to emergency managers.

Floods : Floods are a result of excess run-off, which could increase or decrease depending upon various factors such as:

1. Intensity of rainfall
2. Snow melt
3. Soil type
4. Soil moisture condition
5. Land use / Land cover

Every monsoon, some part of India is under floods. In normal rainfall, Uttarakhand, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra & Bengal are flooded.

Flood plains and flood prone areas can be identified on remotely sensed imagery.

Remotely sensed imagery is used for:

1. Flood mapping using images of peak flood and post flood
2. Flood forecasting based on cloud patterns

For flood mapping purposes, a pre-flood scene and a peak flood image should be compared to delineate the inundated area and based on the land use, classification of the damages in terms of property and crops is established.

The major hurdle in recording floods is that optical satellites cannot penetrate clouds that are present in atmosphere during rainfall.

Optical satellites perform passive remote sensing while Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) uses remote sensisng which is active remote sensing.

Fire:
Fire detection by satellites  provides a highly efficient means of detecting and eradicating forest fires without large number of ground based workers.
Thermal Infrared imagery shows 'HOTSPOTS' that may be distinguished from clouds of similar 'Albedo'.

List of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites

LIST OF INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES

List of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites in reverse chronological order 

(latest first)

1. Saral (Latest)
2. RISAT-1
3. Megha-Tropiques
4. RESOURCESAT-2
5. Cartosat-2B
6. Oceansat-2
7. RISAT-2
8. IMS-1
9. CARTOSAT-2A
10. CARTOSAT-2
11. CARTOSAT-1
12. IRS P6/RESOURCESAT-1
13. Technology Experiment Satellite (TES)
14. IRS-P4/OCEANSAT
15. IRS-1D
16. IRS-P3
17. IRS-1C
18. IRS-P2
19. IRS-1B
20. SROSS-2
21. IRS-1A
22. RS-D2
23. Bhaskara-II
24. RS-D1
25. Bhaskara-1 (Oldest)

Disaster Management Information System (DMIS)

The Disaster Management Information System (DMIS) is a web-based working tool from which users will be able to access:

• real time information on disaster trends
• online internal and external resources
• tools and databases
  

The DMIS project started in February 2001 as a follow up to Strategy 2010 and in response to the need for informed decisions, speed and efficient operational readiness.

The Disaster Management Information System is a civil society initiative supported by socially conscious institutions and individuals, companies and organisations.

Natural disasters impart lessons at a very high cost of life and property. Disasters and the subsequent chaos indicate the importance of disaster planning to manage relief and rehabilitation during disasters.

In the event of a disaster, the relief work suffers immensely due to lack of information and proper planning.

A database on the distribution of available resources and expertise with individuals, institutions and corporations will be extremely useful to combat disasters. This indicates the necessity of building a system for disaster mitigation and for documenting experiences of individuals and organisations, which might act as a knowledge resource and help in better coordination in case of future disasters.

Disaster Management Information Systems involve developing a database-driven information system for Disaster Management Authorities (DMA) in various states, NGOs and other organisations. NGOs, relief workers, DMAs and individuals share their experiences and volunteer services and resources to the online database maintained on the website.

The database currently contains more than a thousand volunteers who have offered to volunteer their services and resources in time of emergency. About 700 organisations and institutions are also listed on the site, besides other resources and web links.

Disaster Management Information System is a global initiative for preparing civil society to meet emergencies.

Traffic accidents becoming a hazard - An example (Case study)

Definition of traffic accident
A traffic accident, motor vehicle collision, motor vehicle accident, car accident, automobile accident, road traffic collision, road traffic accident, occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle,
pedestrian, animal, road debris, or other stationary obstruction, such as a tree or utility pole. Traffic collisions may result in injury, death, vehicle damage, and property damage.

Causes
A number of factors contribute to a traffic accident. For example:

1. vehicle design, 
2. speed of operation, 
3. road design, 
4. road environment,
5. driver skill and/or impairment, and 
6. driver behaviour.

Types of traffic accidents
Traffic collisions can be classified by type of collision. For example,

1. head-on, 
2. road departure, 
3. rear-end, 
4. side collisions, and
5. rollovers.

The main elements of good driving are:

1. controlling a car including a good awareness of the car's size and capabilities
2. reading and reacting to road conditions, weather, road signs and the environment and
3. alertness, reading and anticipating the behavior of other drivers.

In order to minimise accidents, several measures have been taken-up including:

1. law enforcement policies (drink-driving laws, setting of speed limits, and speed enforcement systems such as speed cameras & use of seat belts)

Effects
Impacts due to traffic accidents:

1. Loss of life or injury or life-long disability
2. Loss of property
3. Psychological stress (PTSD)
4. Increased insurance costs
5. Associated social discrimination

Definition of hazard

Case study

NATURAL DISASTERS

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.  At the Earth's surface earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. Earthquakes are mainly caused by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.

Seismic Zonation map of a country is a guide to the seismic status of a region and its susceptibility to earthquakes. India has been divided into five zones with respect to severity of earthquakes. Of these, zone v is seismically the most active where earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more could occur. 

FLOOD
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or a lake which overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries or may be due to accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. Floods can also occur in rivers, when flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at the bends or meanders. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are placed in natural flood plains of rivers. Flood damage can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water.

DROUGHT
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region. Although droughts can persist for several years, even a short intense drought can cause significant damage and harm to the local economy. Drought can also reduce water quality due to less quantity of water to dilute pollutants and increase contamination in the remaining water.

LANDSLIDE
A landslide or landslip is a geological phenomena which includes a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability.
Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released.

CYCLONES
In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This is usually characterised by inward spiraling winds that rotate counterclockwise in the Northern hemisphere  and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure.

TSUNAMIS
A tsunami is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below the water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves because their wavelength is much longer. Instead of appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may appear instead as a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours arriving in a so-called “wave train”.